OSHA’s 35-Year Milestones

OSHA's mission is to send every worker home whole and healthy every day. Since the agency was established in 1971, workplace fatalities have been cut by 62 percent and occupational injury and illness rates have declined 40 percent. At the same time, U.S. employment has nearly doubled from 56 million workers at 3.5 million worksites to 115 million workers at nearly 7 million sites. The following milestones mark the agency's progress over the past 35 years in improving working environments for America's workforce.

December 29, 1970 - President Richard M. Nixon signed the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970.

May 29, 1971 - First standards adopted to provide baseline for safety and health protection in American workplaces.

January 17, 1972 - OSHA Training Institute established to instruct OSHA inspectors and the public.

November-December, 1972 - First states approved (South Carolina, Montana, Oregon) to run their own OSHA programs.

May 20, 1975 - Free consultation program created - more than 500,000 businesses participated in past 30 years.

June 23, 1978 - Cotton dust standard promulgated to protect 600,000 workers from byssinosis; cases of "brown lung" have declined to 0.1 cases per 10,000 workers.

January 20, 1978 - Supreme Court decision setting staffing benchmarks for state plans to be "at least as effective" as federal OSHA.

April 12, 1978 - New Directions Grants program (now known as the Susan Harwood Training Grants program) to foster development of occupational safety and health training and education for employers and workers. (More than 1.3 million trained since 1978.)

November 14, 1978 - Lead standard published to reduce permissible exposures by three-quarters to protect 835,000 workers from damage to nervous, urinary and reproductive systems. (Construction standard adopted in 1995.)

February 26, 1980 - Supreme Court decision on Whirlpool affirming workers' rights to engage in safety and health-related activities.

May 23, 1980 - Medical and exposure records standard finalized to permit worker and OSHA access to employer-maintained medical and toxic exposure records.

July 2, 1980 - Supreme Court decision vacates OSHA's benzene standard, establishing the principle that OSHA standards must address and reduce "significant risks" to workers.

September 12, 1980 - Fire protection standard updated and rules established for fire brigades responsible for putting out nearly 95 percent of worksite fires.

January 16, 1981 - Electrical standards updated to simplify compliance and adopt a performance approach.

July 2, 1982 - Voluntary Protection Programs created to recognize worksites with outstanding safety and health programs (more than 1,400 sites currently participating).

November 25, 1983 - Hazard communication standard promulgated to provide information and training and labeling of toxic materials for manufacturing employers and employees (Other industries added August 24, 1987).

November-December, 1984 - First "final approvals" granted to state plans (Virgin Islands, Hawaii and Alaska) giving them authority to operate with minimal oversight from OSHA.

April 1, 1986 - First instance-by-instance penalties proposed against Union Carbide's plant in Institute, West Virginia, for egregious violations involving respiratory protection and injury and illness recordkeeping.

December 31, 1987 - Grain handling facilities standard adopted to protect 155,000 workers at nearly 24,000 grain elevators from the risk of fire and explosion from highly combustible grain dust.

January 26, 1989 - "Safety and Health Program Management Guidelines," voluntary guidelines for effective safety and health programs based on VPP experience, published.

March 6, 1989 - Hazardous waste operations and emergency response standard promulgated to protect 1.75 million public and private sector workers exposed to toxic wastes from spills or at hazardous waste sites.

September 1, 1989 - Lockout/tagout of hazardous energy sources standard issued to protect 39 million workers from unexpected energization or start up of machines or equipment and prevent 120 deaths and 50,000 injuries each year.

December 6, 1991 - Occupational exposure to bloodborne pathogens standard published to prevent more than 9,000 infections and 200 deaths per year, protecting 5.6 million workers against AIDS, hepatitis B and other diseases.

October 1, 1992 - Education Centers created to make OSHA training courses more widely available to employers, workers and the public. Twenty centers train more than 300,000 students each year - over 370,000 students were trained in FY 2005 alone.

February 24, 1992 - Process safety management of highly hazardous chemicals standard adopted to reduce fire and explosion risks for 3 million workers at 25,000 workplaces, preventing more than 250 deaths and more than 1,500 injuries each year.

January 14, 1993 - Permit-required confined spaces standard promulgated to prevent more than 50 deaths and more than 5,000 serious injuries annually for 1.6 million workers who enter confined spaces at 240,000 workplaces each year.

February 1, 1993 - Maine 200 program created to promote development of safety and health programs at companies with high numbers of injuries and illnesses.

June 27, 1994 - First expert advisor software - GoCad - issued to assist employers in complying with OSHA's cadmium standard.

August 9, 1994 - Fall protection in construction standard revised to save 79 lives and prevent 56,400 injuries each year.

August 10, 1994 - Asbestos standard updated to cut permissible exposures in half for nearly 4 million workers, preventing 42 cancer deaths annually.

September 4, 1995 - Formal launch of OSHA's expanded webpage to provide OSHA standards and compliance assistance via the Internet.

June 6, 1996 - Phone-fax complaint handling policy adopted to speed resolution of complaints of unsafe or unhealthful working conditions.

August 30, 1996 - Scaffold standard published to protect 2.3 million construction workers and prevent 50 deaths and 4,500 injuries annually.

November 9, 1998 - OSHA Strategic Partnership Program launched to improve workplace safety and health through national and local cooperative, voluntary agreements.

April 19, 1999 - Site-Specific Targeting Program established to focus OSHA resources where most needed - on individual worksites with the highest injury and illness rates.

November 14, 2000 - Ergonomics program standard promulgated to prevent 460,000 musculoskeletal disorders among more than 102 million workers at 6.1 million general industry worksites.

January 10, 2001 - Jersey public employee plan receives final approval.

January 17, 2001 - Steel erection standard, developed in concert with industry and union groups, preventing 30 fatalities and 1,142 injuries annually and saving employers nearly $40 million a year, issued. It’s the first OSHA safety standard to be developed under the negotiated rulemaking process.

January 18, 2001 - Recordkeeping rule revised to improve the system that employers use to track and record workplace injuries and illnesses.

January 18, 2001 - As mandated by the Needlestick Safety and Prevention Act, OSHA revised its bloodborne pathogens standard to clarify the need for employers to select safer needle devices.

March 7-8, 2001 - Under the auspices of the Congressional Review Act the Senate votes 56-44 to repeal ergonomics rule. The House follows suit the next day and votes 223-206 to repeal the rule. It is the first time that Congress exercises its authority under the Act to repeal a federal standard.

March 20, 2001 - President signs S.J. Resolution 6, repealing the ergonomics rule.

April 27, 2001 - Occupational Safety and Health Administration celebrates its 30th anniversary; over the past three decades job-related fatalities are cut in half, injuries and illnesses declined by 40 percent.

September 11, 2001 - OSHA responds to terrorist attacks at the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon outside Washington, DC. More than 1,000 OSHA employees from New York and around the country volunteer to help protect workers involved in the cleanup and recovery efforts at both sites.

March 1, 2002 - Agency launches bi-weekly electronic newsletter QuickTakes.

April 4, 2002 - Secretary Chao unveils a comprehensive plan designed to reduce ergonomic injuries through a combination of industry-specific guidelines, strong enforcement, outreach and assistance, and further research.

May 30, 2002 - The recovery phase and cleanup at the World Trade Center disaster site comes to an end. For more than eight months, three million work hours were logged on a worksite like no other, yet only 35 workers missed workdays due to injury and no more lives were lost to work.

March 11, 2003 - OSHA announces an enhanced enforcement policy to focus on those employers who have received "high gravity" citations.

March 13, 2003 - Ergonomics Guidelines issued for the Nursing Home Industry.

July 1, 2003 - Final rule establishes criteria for recording work-related hearing loss.

October 24, 2003 - OSHA welcomes 1000th site to achieve "Star" status in Voluntary Protection Program (VPP).

February 4, 2004 - OSHA unveils its National Emergency Management Plan, a new directive that clarifies the agency's policies during responses to national emergencies.

May 28, 2004 - Ergonomics Guidelines published for Retail Grocery Stores.

August 24, 2004 - Final rule establishes procedures for handling whistleblower complaints under the Corporate and Criminal Fraud Accountability Act of 2002, also known as the Sarbanes-Oxley Act.

September 2, 2004 - Ergonomic guidelines announced for the poultry processing industry.

November 24, 2004 - Federal agencies required to adopt private sector worker safety and health recordkeeping and reporting requirements.

May 12, 2005 - Oregon becomes the 17th state to receive final approval to operate its own job safety and health program.

August 31, 2005 - OSHA responds to Hurricane Katrina and offers the full resources of the agency to help protect the safety and health of workers responding to the disaster along the Gulf Coast.

September 22, 2005 - OSHA reaches settlement agreement with BP Products North America Inc. The company pays more than $21 million in fines following a fatal explosion at its Texas City, TX, plant. It is the largest penalty ever issued by OSHA.

February 27, 2006 - OSHA publishes final rule on hexavalent chromium, lowering the permissible exposure limit (PEL) from 52 to 5 micrograms per cubic centimeters based on an 8-hour workday.

Your Common Masonry Questions Answered

Contractors and masonry workers often run into problems during the course of their work. Here we have listed eight common problems one might encounter when doing masonry work and their possible solutions.

Why isn’t the rock sticking on the wall?

There are several things that could be causing this. First, it’s possible that the rocks are dirty. If that is the case, be sure to wash them well. Or perhaps the rocks are too wet, in which case you must wait until they are dry to resume working with them. If the mortar is too wet or too dry, use more water or more sand and cement to adjust your mix. Or you may have to add more cement or bonding agent if there is not enough in the mix already. Finally, it is possible that the stones are of poor quality, and are too shaley.

Why isn’t the mortar sticking to the masonry wall?

Did you use bonding agent to coat the wall? If not do so, or if you haven’t roughed the surface up, that might also be the problem. If you are working on a dirty or greasy wall, clean it and coat it with bonding agent. It is possible that the mortar is too wet or too dry, in which case you should add more water or more sand and cement to adjust your mix. Add more cement in the mortar if you think there might not be enough already, and if the wall is too wet, take a break from it until it is dry.

Why doesn't the mortar stick to a wood wall?

If the mortar will not stick to a wood wall, it is possible that it is the mortar is too wet or too dry and you may need to use more water or more sand and cement to adjust your mix. Another common cause of this is if there is not enough cement in the mortar; add more cement. And finally, did you remember to put on metal lath?

How do I deal with mortar joints?

Mortar joints make all the difference between professional and unprofessional looking stonework. The most important thing is to keep your work neat and clean. It is easy to clean the mortar off the stone while the mortar is still weak. It is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to get mortar off after it has set up.

How do I repair a loose stone?

If the mortar is still solid in the hole, remove the stone and clean it well. Put a good adhesive on the back of the stone as well as in the hole it came out of and re set the stone. You may have to brace it until the adhesive sets.

What should I do if the mortar is crumbling or broken up?

Remove any loose stone and mortar, clean the stone well, re-mortar it into place and redo your mortar joints. Use bonding agent in your mortar.

Why is rock falling off the wall after the job is finished?

The cause could be that stones were disturbed before they had set up. Or perhaps stones were not tapped into the mortar to create suction. Still another reason would be if not enough mortar was put behind the rocks or it was poor mortar. Did you use a bonding agent? In not, that is why the rocks are falling off. It is imperative that you use quality, clean rocks, otherwise, rocks might fall off. It is possible that the building settled and cracked the stonework, or that the footings were not adequate or that they settled too much (or perhaps a frost heave caused it). Still other reasons would be if the metal lath was not secured well enough, or if the mortar froze.

Why is the mortar starting to crumble and fall out?

There could be several reasons for this, many of which we’ve already discussed. You may not have used enough cement in your mortar. If you used bad cement, or if there was dirt in your sand, or you used poor sand this could also happen. The sand must be sharp and clean. If your sand contained salt it would also cause the mortar to crumble and fall out as well. It is possible that the moisture was sucked out of your mortar too fast and it dried too quickly and did not have a chance to cure properly. Bonding agent helps to prevent this.

Did you use mortar that should have been thrown out? Do not add water to drying out mortar unless you really know what you are doing. Once the chemical reaction has taken place, the mortar could be destroyed. Another reason is that your mortar may have frozen.

Construction Book Express has many guides to working with cement and stone. Check out our huge selection of masonry and concrete products for further tips and instruction.

Building Codes: How Do They Help You?

The regulation of building construction is not a recent phenomenon. It can be traced through recorded history for more than 4,000 years. Through time, people have become increasingly aware of their ability to avoid the catastrophic consequences of building construction failures.

In early America, George Washington and Thomas Jefferson encouraged the development of building regulations to provide for minimum standards that would ensure health and safety. Today, most of the United Sates is covered by a network of modern building regulations ranging in coverage from fire and structural safety to health, security, and conservation energy.

Public safety is not the only byproduct afforded by modern codes. Architects, engineers, contractors, and others in the building community can take advantage of the latest technological advances accommodated by these codes with viable savings to the consumer.

For codes to be effective, an understanding and cooperative relationship must exist between building officials and the groups they serve – homeowners, developers, urban planners and designers, and others in the construction industry. Codes must therefore be responsive to the government’s need to protect the public. They must provide due process for all affected and keep pace with rapidly changing technology. These communities can work together to develop and maintain codes.

During the early 1900’s, model building codes were authorized by the code enforcement officials of various communities with key assistance from all segments of the building industry. Now, model codes are the central regulatory basis for the administration programs in cities, counties, and states throughout the United States. They simply represent a collective undertaking, which shares the cost of code development and maintenance while ensuring uniformity of regulations so that the advantages of technology can be optimized.

Building safety code enforcement has historically been accomplished by defraying the costs of administration through a system of fees relating to a specific project – a system that is self-supporting. These fees are generally less than one percent of the overall cost of the building project. Public protection is thus obtain in a cost-effective manner with the entire process, from plan review to field inspection, carried out in a professional manner. The system is so well developed that the true complexity of the process is obscure to many.

Who needs Building Codes?

We all do – whether in our homes, offices, schools, stores, factories, or places of entertainment. We rely on the safety of structures that surround us in our everyday living. The public need for protection from disaster due to fire, structural collapse, and general deterioration underscores the need for modern codes and their administration.

How reliable are they?

Most aspects of building construction – electrical wiring, heating, sanitary facilities – represent a potential hazard to building occupants and users. Building codes provide safeguards. Although no code can eliminate all risks, reducing risks to an acceptable level helps.

What is a Building Code?

Practically, it is the government’s official statement on building safety. Technically, it is a compendium of minimum safety standards arranged in a systematic manner (codified) for easy reference. It embraces all aspects of building construction – fire, structural, plumbing, electrical, and mechanical.

What if I want to do a building project myself?

Building departments have pamphlets and brochures explaining, in detail, how to obtain permits and design and construct a safe building. Inquire within your local community.

Why should minimum safety codes apply to my own house?

For several reasons:

• Your personal safety, and that of your family, and the guests invited into your home.
• To ensure the economic well-being of the community by reducing potential spread of fire and disease.
• For the conservation of energy.
• To protect future home purchasers who deserve reasonable assurance that the home they buy will be safe.

Local building departments provide a wide range of services beyond the usual plan review and building inspection process. These range from the administration of planning or zoning laws to housing maintenance inspection, nuisance abatement, and a number of other related or ancillary duties. Visit your local building department and get acquainted with the people who make it work.

Visit www.ConstructionBook.com for a full line of building codes that can help you ensure that all of your projects meet public standards for quality, safety, and energy efficiency.

Recognizing and Eliminating Workplace Hazards

Hazards can be found everywhere in the workplace. Some are quite apparent. Others are so small or seemingly ordinary that they're easily overlooked, and every worker is placed at risk in some way.

A workplace hazard denotes any kind of object or situation that could result in injury, disease or death. Some indicators are things we wouldn't immediately consider -- age, for instance. Young workers new on the job (age 15-24) have more of a chance of getting hurt than older, experienced workers. Another invisible hazard would involve experienced workers who use that same tool all day, every day. They're susceptible to repetitive strain injury.

So employers and floor supervisors need to develop the proper mindset to recognize hazards.

The Major Hazards

Many facilities have workplace health and safety issues that are specific to their own industry. But some issues are common to almost every business. Workplace safety starts with knowing the major hazards. These include:

• Physical hazards that involve equipment, machinery or tools
• Bio-hazards that involve bacteria, viruses, fungi, mold or plant materials
• Chemical hazards that involve dust, fumes, vapors, gases or chemical mists
• Electrical hazards

Watch your Step

The single biggest cause of injuries at any workplace is conditions that lead to slips, trips, and falls. These are the most frequent causes of non-fatal major injuries in both manufacturing and service industries. They comprise more than half of all reported injuries. Employers can help to reduce slip and trip hazards looking around the workplace to spot uneven floors, electrical cables, and areas where spillages may occur.

Ways to reduce such risks include:

• Cleaning up spills immediately after they occur
• Positioning equipment to avoid cables crossing pedestrian routes
• Keeping walkways clear of rubbish and other debris
• Securing all rugs and mats so that they won't move and their edges won't curl
• Providing handrails, floor markings and signage in areas where the flooring slopes
• Making sure workers have the proper footwear for the workplace

Other specific workplace hazards include:

• Moving vehicles such as forklifts
• Collapsing platforms or equipment
• Confined-space work areas
• Falling objects
• Workplace violence

Raise the Safety Bar High

Every employer has an ethical and legal duty to set a high standard of workplace safety. As part of this, they should look around the work place and ask themselves questions about the environment. Who comes into the workplace and how would they be at risk? Are the precautions already in place?

An effective safety program involves:

• safe work practices as part of the company's work policies
• Keeping all tools and machinery in a safe condition
• Ensuring that all internal facilities, including bathrooms and eating areas, are clean and germ-free
• Providing information, training and supervision for all workers
• Involving workers and supervisors in all decisions relating to health and safety
• Designating a safety supervisor for all facility areas
• Conducting regular safety meetings

Construction Book Express has many codes, standards, and handbooks that can help you to establish a health and safety program at your workplace.

Four Tips for Building Green

It is the goal of "green" building to increase the efficiency of the use of materials, energy and other resources and to reduce the impact on the environment and the health of the occupants. This is accomplished for the entire lifecycle of the building through better site design, better system design, and better construction methods and materials. Green building is an essential component of the bigger overall concept of sustainability. Here are some tips in four aspects of green building.

Indoor Air Quality - The biggest pollutants are paints, stains, and sealers, as well as the adhesives and glues used in such things as particleboard, cabinets, and carpet. Include systems to control, condition, ventilate, and filter the air inside the home; and make sure the systems can recover the energy (heating or cooling). Isolate the air from your garage and mechanical room from the interior of the home. Use cement-type board under wet applications like bath tile. Fix all water leaks immediately; don't let mold get started. Use integrated pest management for insect control.

Thermal Performance - Insulation and air infiltration are two of the biggest factors in how much energy is required to operate a building. The most efficient insulator is an uninterrupted wall surface or roof such as spray foam, an insulating concrete form, or structural insulated panel. Also important is the solar orientation and thermal mass of the building. Maximize solar gain in the winter with south-facing glazing along the long side of the house, but protect the house from solar gain in the summer. Use enough thermal mass to absorb heat from the winter sun and coolness from the summer nights. Efficient heating and cooling equipment and appliances have a dramatic effect on energy consumed. Use flourescent lighting as much as possible, especially in lights that are used all the time. Solar water heaters and photovoltaic electric systems will further reduce energy consumption.

Embodied Resources - There are large amounts of energy and/or other resources used in the manufacture and transportation of many building materials. For instance, the manufacture of Portland cement used to make concrete requires a tremendous amount of heat. Compare that to an adobe made onsite and baked in the sun. Also consider the amount of clean-up needed, waste generated, the recycleability of the materials, and the "hazard" to the environment and employees.

Water Conservation - Reduce water use with water-saving dishwashers and washing machines, low-flush toilets, and low-flow faucets. Use point-of-use water heaters or hot-water recirculating loops so that it is not necessary to run the water to get it hot. Use drip irrigation with a weather-activated timer and zone plantings according to water needs. Reclaim waste water and capture rainwater.

Green buildings are more energy-efficient, healthier, and reduce the environmental impact of a structure. They can reduce some short- and long-term costs and provide a more enjoyable living solution for any new home or remodel.

How To Get a Contractor's License

Most states require license applicants to take a written examination on construction law, business organization and the skills of their occupation. In addition, applicants may have to prove financial ability to operate a contracting business. Letters of reference from previous employers, customers, bankers, architects or engineers may be required. Many states also require proof of on-the-job experience. The process isn’t always easy, but Construction Book Express is here to help.

Construction Book Express has an area on its website dedicated to providing everything you need to know to apply for a contractor's license or construction tradesman's license anywhere in the U.S. – including who to contact, website addresses, phone and fax numbers, application fees, examination content, and reference manuals recommended for the license examination. Simply follow this link to the Contractors License Center section of our website: www.constructionbook.com/contractor-license/index.asp?src=homeA

Holding a license in one state usually doesn’t grant the right to do construction work in another state. The penalty for accepting any significant work without a license is usually a fine. An unlicensed contractor may not have the right to sue to collect what's due under a construction contract.

Nearly all states have basic requirements for applicants. The following requirements are the same or very similar in all states:

• At least 18 years old with a high school diploma or the equivalent.
• Proof of U.S. citizenship or legal residency.
• Documentation on any other occupational license you hold in the state.
• Two passport-size photos.
• Explanation of citations, violations or liens resulting from construction work.
• Corporations doing business in any state must be registered with the Secretary of State.
• Bidding for work on state projects usually requires prequalification.

Other issues to consider before beginning work in any community:

• Many counties and cities require a business or occupation license.
• The tax authority in each state has the right to set conditions for doing business in that state.
• Many states require that licensed contractors post a "state license bond." That bond offers no protection from liability if there’s an accident or fire on the job. Construction contractors need liability and workers’ compensation coverage in each state where they do business.

We are dedicated to helping candidates pass their exam on the first try, offering all of the books and documents required by each state and licensure board, as well as titles that are recommended for gaining a more thorough understanding of the trades. You'll also find information on qualifications for exam registration, how to sign up, dates and locations, what books you will need, study tips, what types of questions to expect, length of exams, what to do after you pass, and much more!